diff --git a/apps/eth/ethrpc/gasprice.go b/apps/eth/ethrpc/gasprice.go
index 86fca81f..53692f8e 100644
--- a/apps/eth/ethrpc/gasprice.go
+++ b/apps/eth/ethrpc/gasprice.go
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ func (e *EthAPIBackend) FeeHistory(ctx context.Context, blockCount uint64, lastB
 			reward[rewardIndex], baseFee[rewardIndex], baseFee[rewardIndex+1], gasUsedRatio[rewardIndex] = fees.results.reward, fees.results.baseFee, fees.results.nextBaseFee, fees.results.gasUsedRatio
 			blobGasUsedRatio[rewardIndex], blobBaseFee[rewardIndex], blobBaseFee[rewardIndex+1] = fees.results.blobGasUsedRatio, fees.results.blobBaseFee, fees.results.nextBlobBaseFee
 		} else {
-			// 如果没有block和error，意味着我们请求到了未来的区块（可能因为重组）
+			// If there is no block and no error, it means we requested a future block (possibly due to a reorg)
 			if uint64(i) < firstMissing {
 				firstMissing = uint64(i)
 			}
diff --git a/apps/eth/test/cmd/erc20/main.go b/apps/eth/test/cmd/erc20/main.go
index 917d4526..d39613ca 100644
--- a/apps/eth/test/cmd/erc20/main.go
+++ b/apps/eth/test/cmd/erc20/main.go
@@ -46,14 +46,14 @@ func main() {
 	log.Println("finish start eth")
 	if err := assertErc20Transfer(context.Background(), evmConfig); err != nil {
 		log.Println(err)
-		// 停止链
+		// Stop the chain
 		if chain != nil {
 			chain.Stop()
 		}
 		os.Exit(1)
 	}
 	log.Println("assert success")
-	// 停止链
+	// Stop the chain
 	if chain != nil {
 		log.Println("stopping eth chain...")
 		chain.Stop()
diff --git a/apps/eth/test/cmd/transfer/main.go b/apps/eth/test/cmd/transfer/main.go
index 949ac72e..9cb190d9 100644
--- a/apps/eth/test/cmd/transfer/main.go
+++ b/apps/eth/test/cmd/transfer/main.go
@@ -53,14 +53,14 @@ func main() {
 	}
 	if err := assertEthTransfer(context.Background(), chainID); err != nil {
 		logrus.Info(err)
-		// 停止链
+		// Stop the chain
 		if chain != nil {
 			chain.Stop()
 		}
 		os.Exit(1)
 	}
 	logrus.Info("assert success")
-	// 停止链
+	// Stop the chain
 	if chain != nil {
 		logrus.Info("stopping eth chain...")
 		chain.Stop()
diff --git a/apps/eth/test/cmd/uniswap/main.go b/apps/eth/test/cmd/uniswap/main.go
index 5f3acc6c..d0ad35a5 100644
--- a/apps/eth/test/cmd/uniswap/main.go
+++ b/apps/eth/test/cmd/uniswap/main.go
@@ -47,14 +47,14 @@ func main() {
 	logrus.Info("finish start eth")
 	if err := assertUniswapV2(context.Background(), evmConfig.ChainConfig.ChainID.Int64()); err != nil {
 		logrus.Info(err)
-		// 停止链
+		// Stop the chain
 		if chain != nil {
 			chain.Stop()
 		}
 		os.Exit(1)
 	}
 	logrus.Info("assert success")
-	// 停止链
+	// Stop the chain
 	if chain != nil {
 		logrus.Info("stopping eth chain...")
 		chain.Stop()
diff --git a/apps/eth/test/uniswap/uniswapV2Accuracy_testcase.go b/apps/eth/test/uniswap/uniswapV2Accuracy_testcase.go
index 65c4a18d..5b1a5530 100644
--- a/apps/eth/test/uniswap/uniswapV2Accuracy_testcase.go
+++ b/apps/eth/test/uniswap/uniswapV2Accuracy_testcase.go
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ func (ca *UniswapV2AccuracyTestCase) Run(ctx context.Context, m *pkg.WalletManag
 			retryErrors = append(retryErrors, struct {
 				Nonce int
 				Err   error
-			}{Nonce: int(nonce), Err: err}) // record和 nonce
+			}{Nonce: int(nonce), Err: err}) // record nonce
 			time.Sleep(retryDelay)
 		}
 
diff --git a/apps/quickstart/chain.go b/apps/quickstart/chain.go
index 60184126..171550ff 100644
--- a/apps/quickstart/chain.go
+++ b/apps/quickstart/chain.go
@@ -17,9 +17,9 @@ func NewQuickStart() *QuickStart {
 	tri := &QuickStart{
 		tripod.NewTripod(),
 	}
-	// 此处需要手动将自定义的 Writing 注册到 tripod 中，
+	// Register custom Writing to the tripod manually
 	tri.SetWritings(tri.WriteA)
-	// 此处需要手动将自定义的 Reading 注册到 tripod 中
+	// Register custom Reading to the tripod manually
 	tri.SetReadings(tri.ReadA)
 	return tri
 }
@@ -29,20 +29,20 @@ type WriteRequest struct {
 	Value string `json:"value"`
 }
 
-// 此处定制开发一个 Writing
-// Writing会被全网节点共识并执行
+// WriteA is a custom Writing handler.
+// Writings are executed by consensus across all network nodes.
 func (q *QuickStart) WriteA(ctx *context.WriteContext) error {
-	// 设置该 writing 所需消耗的lei (lei和gas同义)
+	// Set the lei (equivalent to gas) cost for this writing
 	ctx.SetLei(100)
-	// 解析请求体
+	// Parse the request body
 	req := new(WriteRequest)
 	err := ctx.BindJson(req)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	// 将数据存入链上状态中。
+	// Store data into on-chain state
 	q.Set([]byte(req.Key), []byte(req.Value))
-	// 向链外发射一个event
+	// Emit an event to off-chain listeners
 	ctx.EmitStringEvent("execute success")
 	return nil
 }
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ type ReadResponse struct {
 	Value string `json:"value"`
 }
 
-// 此处定制开发一个 Reading
+// ReadA is a custom Reading handler.
 func (q *QuickStart) ReadA(ctx *context.ReadContext) {
 	req := new(ReadRequest)
 	err := ctx.BindJson(req)
@@ -72,9 +72,9 @@ func (q *QuickStart) ReadA(ctx *context.ReadContext) {
 }
 
 func main() {
-	// 启用poa tripod的默认配置
+	// Use the default PoA tripod configuration
 	poaCfg := poa.DefaultCfg(0)
-	// 启用yu的默认配置
+	// Use the default yu kernel configuration
 	yuCfg := startup.InitDefaultKernelConfig()
 
 	poaTri := poa.NewPoa(poaCfg)
diff --git a/apps/vdf/vdf.go b/apps/vdf/vdf.go
index caad2019..60b6e837 100644
--- a/apps/vdf/vdf.go
+++ b/apps/vdf/vdf.go
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ import (
 )
 
 // ----------------------------
-// 基础工具函数
+// Basic utility functions
 // ----------------------------
 
-// hashToPrime 从 N, x, y, t 哈希生成一个确定性的素数 l
+// hashToPrime generates a deterministic prime l by hashing N, x, y, t
 func hashToPrime(N, x, y *big.Int, t uint64, bits int) (*big.Int, error) {
 	h := sha256.New()
 	h.Write(N.Bytes())
@@ -42,13 +42,13 @@ func hashToPrime(N, x, y *big.Int, t uint64, bits int) (*big.Int, error) {
 	}
 }
 
-// gcd 计算 a,b 的最大公约数
+// gcd computes the greatest common divisor of a and b
 func gcd(a, b *big.Int) *big.Int {
 	return new(big.Int).GCD(nil, nil, a, b)
 }
 
-// GenerateRSAmodulus 生成一个 RSA 模数 N = p*q
-// 注意：生产环境应使用多方安全生成，否则泄露因子会破坏安全性。
+// GenerateRSAmodulus generates an RSA modulus N = p*q
+// Note: production environments should use multi-party secure generation, otherwise leaking factors breaks security.
 func GenerateRSAmodulus(totalBits int) (*big.Int, error) {
 	if totalBits%2 != 0 {
 		return nil, errors.New("bit length must be even")
@@ -66,16 +66,16 @@ func GenerateRSAmodulus(totalBits int) (*big.Int, error) {
 }
 
 // ----------------------------
-// VDF Wesolowski 核心实现
+// VDF Wesolowski core implementation
 // ----------------------------
 
-// EvalResult 表示 VDF 的输出结果
+// EvalResult represents the output of a VDF evaluation
 type EvalResult struct {
 	Y  *big.Int // y = x^{2^t} mod N
-	Pi *big.Int // Wesolowski 证明 π
+	Pi *big.Int // Wesolowski proof π
 }
 
-// Eval 计算 VDF 输出与证明
+// Eval computes the VDF output and proof
 func Eval(x *big.Int, t uint64, N *big.Int, securityBits int) (*EvalResult, error) {
 	xMod := new(big.Int).Mod(x, N)
 	if xMod.Sign() == 0 {
@@ -85,14 +85,14 @@ func Eval(x *big.Int, t uint64, N *big.Int, securityBits int) (*EvalResult, erro
 		return nil, errors.New("x not coprime with N")
 	}
 
-	// Step 1: 计算 y = x^{2^t} mod N
+	// Step 1: compute y = x^{2^t} mod N
 	y := new(big.Int).Set(xMod)
 	for i := uint64(0); i < t; i++ {
 		y.Mul(y, y)
 		y.Mod(y, N)
 	}
 
-	// Step 2: 生成素数挑战 l
+	// Step 2: generate prime challenge l
 	l, err := hashToPrime(N, xMod, y, t, securityBits)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, err
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ func Eval(x *big.Int, t uint64, N *big.Int, securityBits int) (*EvalResult, erro
 	return &EvalResult{Y: y, Pi: pi}, nil
 }
 
-// Verify 验证 Wesolowski 证明
+// Verify verifies the Wesolowski proof
 func Verify(x, y, pi *big.Int, t uint64, N *big.Int, securityBits int) (bool, error) {
 	xMod := new(big.Int).Mod(x, N)
 	yMod := new(big.Int).Mod(y, N)